Kanaval in Jacmel Haiti 2014 05
While cooking, walking, tending the garden, or washing clothes, the women of Haiti sing songs. For Nathalie Joachim, a Haitian-American singer, flutist, and composer, her image of Haiti is one of love, beauty, tradition, family, and, perhaps above all, music: it pervades the house after church on Sundays and communicates the stories and traditions of past generations.
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Culture of Haiti |
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The culture of Haiti is an eclectic mix of African, Taino and European elements due to the French colonization of Saint Domingue and its large and diverse enslaved African population, as is evidenced in the Haitian language, music, and religion.
Art[edit]
A large sequined Vodou 'drapeau' or flag, created by artist George Valris.
Brilliant colors, naïve perspective, and sly humor characterize Haitian art. Big, delectable foods and lush landscapes are favorite subjects in this land. Going to market is the most social activity of country life, and figures prominently into the subject matter. Jungle animals, rituals, dances, and gods evoke the African past.
Artists paint in fable as well. People are disguised as animals and animals are transformed into people. Symbols take on great meaning. For example, a rooster often represents Aristide and the red and blue colors of the flag of Haiti, often represent his Lavalas party.
Many artists cluster in 'school' of painting, such as the Cap-Haïtien school, which features depictions of daily life in the city, the Jacmel School, which reflects the steep mountains and bays of that coastal town, or the Saint-Soleil School, which is characterized by abstracted human forms, and is heavily influenced by Vodou symbolism.
Architecture[edit]
Haiti's most famous monuments are the Sans-Souci Palace and the Citadelle Laferrière, inscribed as a World Heritage site in 1982.[1] Situated in the Northern Massif de la Hotte, in one of Haiti's National Parks, the structures date from the early 19th century.[2] The buildings were among the first to be built after Haiti's independence from France.
Jacmel, the colonial city that was tentatively accepted as a World Heritage site, is reported to be extensively damaged by the 2010 Haiti earthquake.[2]
Since the earthquake of 2010, architecture has taken a huge turn. With damages at an estimated 10 million dollars, architectural measures were taken immediately. Directly after the earthquake Article 25 of the UK gained about 350 architects in 2010 looking to help rebuild Haiti. There was also a great effort made by the U.S. through the Architecture for Humanity effort that was iniated after the earthquake. The architecture style became very reasonable and involved minimalistic and functional style to help rebuild the damage in the most efficient way possible. There has also been a strong initiative to build more open-air clinics that are designed with health precautions as a huge priority.[3][4]
Cuisine[edit]
The French influences in Haiti are present in their cuisine, but more so it is representative of their location in the Caribbean. They do however have their own flavor as a result of the lack of Spanish influence on their island compared to others in the Caribbean. The cooking style used in Haiti is predominately Creole and includes heavy use of pepper in the majority of their dishes. A main staple in Haiti Is starch, and many of their dishes include potatoes, rice, corn, beans, and plantains.
There is also a strong presence of tropical fruits in their cuisine due to their ability to grow in the tropical climate. This includes pineapples, coconuts, mangoes, and other fruits that are used for many dishes and beverages. Food also has importance in religious and status-symbol type forms. Foods that are considered delicacies in Haiti include French inspired cheeses and meats and are a symbol of money and power. Typically these types of meals are only served in the richest part of Haiti, namely in the capital of Port-au-Prince. As Far as Religious meals go, the Catholics in Haiti typically enjoy more elaborate meals during Christmas Eve.
Fashion[edit]
In Haiti, the quadrille dress is called a karabela dress. Traditional male attire for dances, weddings, and other formal wear is the linen shirt jacket.
Festivals[edit]
Kanaval in Jacmel Haiti 2014 03
The most festive time of the year in Haiti is during Carnival (referred to as Kanaval in Haitian Creole or Mardi Gras). The festivities start in February. The cities are filled with music, parade floats, and people dancing and singing in the streets. Carnival week is traditionally a time of all-night parties and escape from daily life. This is a significant time for Haitian musicians for an opportunity to showcase their talents and expand their audience by performing for Carnival crowds. Rara, a festival which occurs before Easter, is celebrated by a significant number of the population as well, and its celebration has been led to it becoming a style of Carnival music. Many of the youth also attend parties and enjoy themselves at nightclubs called discos, (pronounced 'deece-ko') (not like the discos of the U.S), and attend Bal. This term derives from the word ballad, and these events are often celebrated by crowds of many people.
Folklore and mythology[edit]
Haiti is known for its rich folklore traditions. The country has many magical tales that are part of the Haitian Vodou tradition. The Haitian dictator Papa Doc was a strong believer in the country's folklore and used elements of it to guide his brutal rule of the country.
Literature[edit]
The first document of Haitian literature is the collective text Acte de l'Indépendance de la République d'Haïti (Haitian Declaration of Independence). Since then, Haitian literary culture has been ever-growing and vibrant, recognized both at home and abroad with award-winning authors and large-scale literary events locally[5] and internationally.[6]
Music and dance[edit]
Hatian Folk Singer Manno Charlemagne
Haitian music combines a wide range of influences drawn from the many people who have settled on this Caribbean island. It reflects French, African rhythms, Spanish elements and others who have inhabited the island of Hispaniola and minor native Taino influences. Styles of music unique to the nation of Haiti include music derived from Vodou ceremonial traditions, rara parading music, twoubadouballads, mini-jazz rock bands, rasin movement, hip hop kreyòl, the wildly popular compas,[7] and méringue as its basic rhythm.
Very popular today is compas, short for compas direct, made popular by Nemours Jean-Baptiste, on a recording released in 1955. The name derives from compás, the Spanish word meaning rhythm or tones. It involves mostly medium-to-fast tempo beats with an emphasis on electric guitars, synthesizers, and either a solo alto saxophone, a horn section or the synthesizer equivalent. In Creole, it is spelled as konpa dirèk or simply konpa. It is commonly spelled as it is pronounced as kompa.[8]
Dancing is an important part of Haitian life. In the case of Vodou, the religious experience of spirit possession is usually accompanied by dancing, singing, and drumming. Carnival and rara celebrations feature exuberant dancing and movement in the streets. Dancing is also a social activity, used for celebrations such as church socials and informal parties, as well as evenings out with friends. In small restaurants, social dance music is provided by relatively small twoubadou groups, while larger clubs with big dance floors often feature dance bands reminiscent of the American big bands in size. Social dance music has been one of the most heavily creolized music forms in Haiti. European dance forms such as the contradanse (kontradans), quadrille, waltz, and polka were introduced to white planter audiences during the colonial period. Musicians, either slaves or freed people of color, learned the European dance forms and adapted them for their own use. One of the most popular African-influenced dance styles was the méringue (mereng in Creole). Along with the carabinier, the méringue was a favorite dance style of the Haitian elite and was a regular feature at elite dances. The Haitian expression, Mereng ouvri bal, mereng fème ba; (The mereng opens the ball, the mereng closes the ball) alludes to the popularity and ubiquity of the méringue as an elite entertainment. In nineteenth-century Haiti, the ability to dance the méringue, as well as a host of other dances, was considered a sign of good breeding. Like other creolized dance styles, the méringue was claimed by both elite and proletarian Haitian audiences as a representative expression of Haitian cultural values.[9]
Religion[edit]
Swearing-in ceremony of Haitian Diaspora GwètòDe (Clergy in Vodou)
Haiti is similar to the rest of Latin America, in that it is a predominantly Christian country, with 80% Roman Catholic and approximately 16% professing Protestantism. A small population of Muslims and Hindus exist in the country, principally in the capital of Port-au-Prince.
Vodou, encompassing several different traditions, consists of a mix of Central and Western African, European, and Native American (Taíno) religions is also widely practiced, despite the negative stigma that it carries both in and out of the country. The exact number of Vodou practitioners is unknown; however, it is believed that a large amount of the population practice it, often alongside their Christian faith. Some secular Christians also have been known to participate in some rituals, although indirectly.
Social etiquette[edit]
![Haitian Creole Songs Haitian Creole Songs](/uploads/1/2/6/5/126549300/537956949.jpg)
- Main article: Etiquette of Haiti
Sports[edit]
Football is the most popular sport in Haiti, though basketball is growing in popularity.[10] Hundreds of small football clubs compete at the local level.[10]Stade Sylvio Cator is the multi-purpose stadium in Port-au-Prince, Haiti where it is currently used mostly for association football matches that fits a capacity of 30,000 people.
Haitian football player Joseph Gaetjens played for the United States national team in the 1950 FIFA World Cup, scoring the winning goal in the 1–0 upset of England.
In the early 20th century, it was reported that cockfighting was also a popular sport, though its popularity has since faded.[11]
Traditional knowledge[edit]
Haiti's traditional knowledge found its first prominent champion in the ethnographer Jean Price-Mars, who's seminal So spoke the uncle (in French Ainsi parla L'oncle) argued in favor of a greater respect and appreciation of Haiti's African-rooted, largely oral-based peasant culture. Since then numerous authors and thinkers have documented the country's rich and complex traditional knowledge, whether it be in its approach to education and morality,[12] architecture and construction,[13] or botany and medicine.[14]
See also[edit]
References[edit]
- ^'National History Park – Citadel, Sans the great Souci, Ramiers'. UNESCO.org. Retrieved 2010-01-23.
- ^ ab'Heritage in Haiti'. UNESCO.org. 2010-01-20. Retrieved 2010-01-23.
- ^'Architecture from Haiti - ArchDaily'. Archdaily.com. Retrieved 2 August 2017.
- ^Rose, Steve (14 February 2010). 'Haiti and the demands of disaster-zone architecture'. The Guardian. Retrieved 2 August 2017.
- ^'Livres en folie : ' Un bilan satisfaisant ''. Le Nouvelliste. May 27, 2016. Retrieved April 29, 2017.
- ^Valérie Marin La Meslée (March 23, 2015). 'Échos de diaspora : Haïti au Salon du livre de Paris'. Le Point Afrique. Retrieved April 29, 2017.
- ^'Music and the Story of Haiti'. Afropop Worldwide. Archived from the original on 13 November 2007. Retrieved 24 July 2013.CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown (link)
- ^Wise, Brian. 'Band's Haitian Fusion Offers Fellow Immigrants a Musical Link to Home'. New York Times. Retrieved 24 January 2015.
- ^Manuel, Peter with Kenneth Bilby, Michael Largey (2006). Caribbean Currents: Caribbean Music from Rumba to Reggae. pp. 157–158. Retrieved 28 January 2014.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
- ^ abArthur, Charles (2 August 2017). 'Haiti: A Guide to the People, Politics and Culture'. Interlink Books. Retrieved 2 August 2017 – via Google Books.
- ^Kelsey, p. 120
- ^Claudine Michel (1995). Aspects educatifs et moraux du vodou haïtien. p. 112.
- ^Richard Campanella (12 February 2014). 'Shotgun geography: the history behind the famous New Orleans elongated house'. Times-Picayune. Retrieved 29 April 2017.
The shotgun house of Port-au-Prince became, quite directly, the shotgun house of New Orleans.
- ^Marilise Neptune Rouzier (1998). Plantes médicinales d'Haïti: description, usages et propriétés.
Sources[edit]
- Kelsey, Carl (1921) 'The American Intervention in Haiti and the Dominican Republic' in American Academy of Political and Social Science; National American Woman Suffrage Association Collection (Library of Congress) (March 1922). Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. C. Published by A.L. Hummel for the American Academy of Political and Social Science. pp. 109–202. Retrieved 8 June 2011.
Retrieved from 'https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Culture_of_Haiti&oldid=932461205'
The term Creole music (French: musique créole) is used to describe both the early folk or roots music traditions of rural Creoles of Louisiana.
- 1Creole folk music
- 2Louisiana Creole music
Creole folk music[edit]
One possible definition of Creole folk music is this: melodies, sometimes including dance-related instrumental accompaniments, sung in Louisiana French and Louisiana Creole by Louisiana Creole people of French, Spanish, Native, and/or African.
Date | Code | Compilation |
---|---|---|
1867 | SS | Slave Songs of the United States (final 7 songs)[1] |
1902 | CS | Creole Songs from New Orleans in the Negro-Dialect[2] |
1915 | AA | Afro-American Folksongs[3] |
1921 | CF | Six Creole Folk-Songs[4] |
1921 | BB | Bayou Ballads: Twelve Folk-Songs from Louisiana[5] |
1939 | LF | Louisiana French Folk Songs[6] (Chapter 6: 'Creole Folk Songs') |
1946 | DS | Creole Songs of the Deep South[7] |
Cultural setting and Congo Square[edit]
Congo Square in New Orleans
In America's Music (2nd edition, p. 302-3),[8]Gilbert Chase describes the cultural setting in which Creole folk music developed. To summarize, in 1803 the United States purchased the Louisiana Territory, including New Orleans, from France, and in 1809 and 1810, 'more than ten thousand refugees from the West Indies arrived in New Orleans, most originally from French-speaking Haiti. Of these, about three thousand were free Negroes.' At the time of Louis Moreau Gottschalk's birth in 1829, 'Caribbean' was 'perhaps the best word to describe the musical atmosphere of New Orleans.'
Although the inspiration for Gottschalk's compositions, such as 'Bamboula' and 'The Banjo,' has often been attributed to childhood visits to Congo Square, no documentation exists for any such visits, and it is more likely that he learned the Creole melodies and rhythms that inform these pieces from Sally, his family's enslaved nurse from Saint-Domingue, who Gottschalk referred to as 'La Négresse Congo.'9 Whether Gottschalk actually attended the Congo Square dances or not, his music is certainly emblematic of the crossroads that formed there. Born in New Orleans and reared in the culture of Saint-Domingue, he toured throughout the Caribbean and was particularly acclaimed in Cuba. Gottschalk was closely associated with the Cuban pianist and composer, Manuel Saumell Robredo (1818–1870), a master of the contradanza, widely popular dance compositions based on the African-derived habanera rhythm, a first cousin to the bamboula. It is likely that contradanzas composed by both Gottschalk and Saumell were an antecedent to the ragtime compositions of Scott Joplin and Jelly Roll Morton.10 The Smithsonian Folkways catalog features Gottschalk's music, Louis Moreau Gottschalk: American Piano Music Played by Amiran Rigai (1992), and two collections of Creole songs that very likely reflect the music he learned as a youth from Sally: Creole Songs of Haiti (1954) by Haitian singer, dancer, and folklorist Emerante de Pradines and Street Cries and Creole Songs of New Orleans (1956) by Adelaide van Wey, a classically trained singer and folklorist.
Adelaide Van Wey sings Creole songs on Street Cries and Creole Songs of New Orleans (1956). Creole folk songs originated on the plantations of the French and Spanish colonists of Louisiana. The music characteristics embody African-derived syncopated rhythms, the Habanera accent of Spain, and the quadrilles of France.
Central to Creole musical activities was Place Congo (in English: Congo Square). The much quoted 1886 article[9] by George Washington Cable offers this description:
![Songs Songs](/uploads/1/2/6/5/126549300/592635891.jpg)
The booming of African drums and blast of huge wooden horns called to the gathering ... The drums were very long, hollowed, often from a single piece of wood, open at one end and having a sheep or goat skin stretched across the other ... The smaller drum was often made from a joint or two of very large bamboo ... and this is said to be the origin of its name; for it was called the Bamboula.
Cable then describes a variety of instruments used at Congo Square, including gourds, triangles, jaw harps, jawbones, and 'the grand instrument at last', the four-stringed banjo. The bamboula, or 'bamboo-drum', accompanied the bamboula dance and bamboula songs. Chase writes, 'For Cable, the bamboula represented 'a frightful triumph of body over the mind,' and 'Only the music deserved to survive, and does survive ... '
Among other Creole dances mentioned by Chase (p. 312) are the babouilee, the cata (or chacta), the counjaille (or counjai), the voudou, the calinda, and the congo. 'Perhaps the most widespread of all was the calinda...' The melody 'Michié Préval', for example, was sung to the calinda. In Spanish, the name of this dance is calenda.
Songs sung at Good Hope Plantation, St. Charles Parish[edit]
Songs numbered 130-136 in Slave Songs of the United States, according to a note on page 113,[1]
were obtained from a lady who heard them sung, before the war, on the 'Good Hope' plantation, St. Charles Parish, Louisiana ... Four of these songs, Nos. 130, 131, 132, and 133, were sung to a simple dance, a sort of minuet, called the Coonjai; the name and the dance are probably both of African origin. When the Coonjai is danced, the music is furnished by an orchestra of singers, the leader of whom—a man selected both for the quality of his voice and for his skill in improvising—sustains the solo part, while the others afford him an opportunity, as they shout in chorus, for inventing some neat verse to compliment some lovely danseuse, or celebrate the deeds of some plantation hero. The dancers themselves never sing ... and the usual musical accompaniment, besides that of the singers, is that furnished by a skilful performer on the barrel-head-drum, the jaw-bone and key, or some other rude instrument.
... It will be noticed that all these songs are 'seculars' [not spirituals]; and that while the words of most of them are of very little account, the music is as peculiar, as interesting, and, in the case of two or three of them, as difficult to write down, or to sing correctly, as any [of the 129 songs] that have preceded them.
The words 'obtained from a lady who heard them sung' suggest that the songs were written down by someone, perhaps the lady herself, but certainly someone adept at music notation who was able to understand and write down the patois. It seems likely that she or he was a guest or a member of the La Branche family, who resided at the plantation until 1859, shortly after which the plantation was devastated by flood. This family included United States chargé d'affaires to Texas and a Speaker of the Louisiana House of Representatives, Alcée Louis la Branche.
We may never know the identity of the person who wrote down the seven Creole folk songs as sung at Good Hope Plantation, but it is noteworthy that Good Hope (town), Good Hope Floodwall, Good Hope Oil and Gas Field, Bayou La Branche, and, especially, La Branche Wetlands are today well known names in St. Charles Parish, where the seven songs were once sung.
Gottschalk's use of Creole melodies[edit]
Louis Moreau Gottschalk pictured on an 1864 publication
Louis Moreau Gottschalk, widely acknowledged as America's foremost concert artist of the nineteenth century, was born in New Orleans in 1829. Perone's bio-bibliography lists hundreds of Gottschalk's compositions. Among them are three solo piano works based on Creole melodies:
- Bamboula, danse des nègres, based on 'Musieu Bainjo' and 'Tan Patate-là Tcuite' ('Quan' patate la cuite').[10][11]
- La Savane, ballad crèole, based on 'Lolotte', also known as 'Pov'piti Lolotte'.[11]
- Le Bananier, chanson nègre, based on 'En avan', Grenadie', which like other Creole folk melodies, was also a popular French song.[11]
In America's Music (revised third edition, page 290),[12] Chase writes:
Le Bananier was one of the three pieces based on Creole tunes that had a tremendous success in Europe and that I have called the 'Louisiana Trilogy.' [The other two are Bamboula and La Savane.] All three were composed between 1844 and 1846, when Gottschalk was still a teenager ... The piece that created the greatest sensation was Bamboula.
Chase apparently overlooked a fourth Creole melody used by Gottschalk on his Op. 11 (Three other melodies had already been identified for this piece). In her 1902 compilation, Gottschalk's sister arranged 'Po' Pitie Mamzé Zizi', and included a footnote: 'L. M. Gottschalk used this melody for his piece entitled Le Mancenillier, sérénade, Op. 11.'[11]
Regarding 'Misieu Bainjo', used in Gottschalk's Bamboula, the editors of Slave Songs write '...the attempt of some enterprising negro to write a French song; he is certainly to be congratulated on his success.' The song has been published in more than a dozen collections prior to 1963, listed by the Archive of Folk Culture, Library of Congress.
The Louisiana Lady[edit]
During the 1930s and 1940s, Camille Nickerson (1888–1982) performed Creole folk music professionally as 'The Louisiana Lady.' During an interview with Doris E. McGinty, Professor Nickerson told of her first performance at a parish in New Iberia. 'I was dressed in Creole costume and sang for about an hour and a half, and was very well received. Now this was a white audience; such a thing was unheard of in Louisiana, especially in the rural section such as this was. The enthusiasm of the audience showed me what an impact the Creole song could have.'
Compilations and arrangements of Creole melodies[edit]
In any discussion of Creole folk songs, compilations of such songs play an essential role, not only for defining 'Creole folk music', but also as a source of information, and, for performers, a possible source of arrangements. A brief summary of published compilations (with citations in References) follows:
- Slave Songs of the United States (1867) the earliest known compilation; 7 unaccompanied melodies with words.[1]
- Creole Songs from New Orleans in the Negro-Dialect (1902)[2]
- Notes d'ethnographie musicale - La Musique chez les peuples indegenes de l'Amerique du Nord, (1910); this scholarly work by Julien Tiersot contains several Creole folk songs not found elsewhere, notably 'Chanson nègre de la Louisiane' obtained from Professor Alcée Fortier.
- Afro-American Folksongs (1915)[3]
- Six Creole Folk-Songs (1921)[4]
- Bayou Ballads: Twelve Folk-Songs from Louisiana (1921);[5] texts and music collected by Mina Monroe, edited with the collaboration of Kurt Schindler. In the introduction, Monroe (who was born Marie Thereze Bernard in New Orleans, September 2, 1886), offers these insights:
The most definite recollections of my childhood on the Labranche Plantation in St. Charles Parish where we lived, are of the singing and dancing of the negroes. This plantation had been in our family from the days of the early settlers and, by a trick of fortune years after the war, with its resulting shiftings and changes, my grandmother found herself mistress of a plantation on which she had lived as a child. Many of the negroes who had wandered away (in fact, nearly all of them) had by then returned to their birthplace to find themselves practically under the same masters ...
- Monroe's compilation includes ample notes about each of the twelve folk songs. The songs are arranged for solo voice with piano accompaniment...'suitable and attractive for concert singers.'
- Chansons Nègres, includes arrangements by Tiersot for solo voice and piano of these Creole folk songs: 'Papa Dit Non, Maman Dit Oui', 'Monsieur Banjo', 'Pauv' Pitit' Mamzell' Zizi', 'Un Bal' (= 'Michié Préval'),'Les Jours du Temps Passé', 'Quand Patates Sont Cuites', 'Bal Fini', 'Compère Lapin', and 'Aurore Bradère.'
- Louisiana French Folk Songs,[6] Chapter 6: 'Creole Folk Songs' (1939)
- Creole Songs of the Deep South (1946)[7]
Louisiana Creole music[edit]
'Louisiana Creole music', often reduced to 'Creole music', designates a genre found in connection with Cajun music, zydeco, and swamp pop. The beginnings of this genre are associated with accordionist Amédé Ardoin (1896–1941), who, in the early 1930s, made influential recordings with Cajun fiddler Dennis McGee.
Subsequent developments, in which Creole and Cajun styles became increasingly inseparable, are covered at Contemporary Louisiana Cajun, Creole and Zydeco Musicians. Among the many pages, under the auspices of Louisiana State University Eunice, are tributes to Louisiana Creole musicians Alphonse 'Bois Sec' Ardoin (1915-2007) and Boozoo Chavis (1930-2001). Andrus Espree aka Beau Jocque (1956–1999)
Footnotes[edit]
- ^ abcAllen, William Francis; Charles Pickard Ware; Lucy McKim Garrison (1867). Slave Songs of the United States. New York: A. Simpson & Co. pp. The Creole folk songs, numbered 130–136, can be viewed here as melodies with Creole lyrics. Retrieved January 11, 2009.Alternate copy hosted by Google Books
- ^ abPeterson, Clara Gottschalk (1902). Creole songs from New Orleans in the negro-dialect. New Orleans: L. Grunewald. hdl:1802/5917.
- ^ abKrehbiel, Henry Edward (1916). 'Chapters IX, X, XI concentrate on Louisiana Creole music, dance, and patois, with comparisons to those of Martinique.'. Afro-American Folksongs: A Study in Racial and National Music (Fourth ed.). New York: G. Schirmer.Alternate copy hosted by Google Books
- ^ abCuney-Hare, Maud (1921). Six Creole Folk-Songs. New York: Fischer.
- ^ abMonroe, Mina (1921). Bayou Ballads: Twelve Folk-Songs from Louisiana. New York: G. Schirmer.
- ^ abWhitfield, Irène Thérèse. '6, Creole Folk Songs'. Louisiana French Folk Songs (1939, Third edition, Hebert Publications, Eunice, Louisiana, 1981. ed.). Louisiana State University Press.
- ^ abWehrmann, Henri (1946). Creole Songs of the Deep South. New Orleans.
- ^Chase, Gilbert (1966). America's Music, from the Pilgrims to the Present (revised second ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
- ^Cable, George Washington (February 1886). 'The Dance in Place Congo'. The Century Magazine. Retrieved 2012-04-10.
- ^All Music. 'Bamboula, danse des nègres for piano, Op. 2, D. 13 (RO 20)'. All music.com. Retrieved 5 July 2012.
- ^ abcdStarr, S. Frederick (2000). Louis Moreau Gottschalk. University of Illinois Press. pp. 74–77. ISBN0252068769.
- ^Chase, Gilbert (1987). America's music, from the pilgrims to the present. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. ISBN0-252-00454-X.
Sources[edit]
- Shane K. Bernard, Swamp Pop: Cajun and Creole Rhythm and Blues, University Press of Mississippi, Jackson, Mississippi, 1996. (Mentions black Creole music, but not Creole folk songs.)
- Florence E. Borders, 'Researching Creole and Cajun Musics in New Orleans', Black Music Research Journal, vol. 8, no. 1 (1988) 15-31.
- George W. Cable, 'The Dance in Place Congo', Century Magazine vol. 31, Feb., 1886, pp. 517–532.
- Doris E. McGinty and Camille Nickerson, 'The Louisiana Lady', The Black Perspective in Music, vo. 7, no. 1 (Spring, 1979) 81-94.
- Camille Nickerson, Africo-Creole Music in Louisiana; a thesis on the plantation songs created by the Creole negroes of Louisiana, Oberlin College, 1932.
- James E. Perone, Louis Moreau Gottschalk, a Bio-Bibliography, Greenwood Press, Westport, Connecticut, 2002.
- Dorothy Scarborough, On the Trail of Negro Folk-Songs, Harvard University Press, 1925.
- S. Frederick Starr, Bamboula! The Life and Times of Louis Moreau Gottschalk, Oxford University Press, 2000.
- Julien Tiersot, 'Notes d'ethnographie musicale: La Musique chez les peuples indigenes de l'Amerique du Nord', Sämmelbande der Internationalen Musikgesellschaft 11 (1910) 141-231. Melodies only, with musicological notes.
- Julien Tiersot, Chansons Nègres, Heugel, Paris, 1933.
- Ching Veillon, Creole Music Man: Bois Sec Ardoin, Xlibris, 2003.[self-published source?]
External links[edit]
- Contemporary Louisiana Cajun, Creole and Zydeco Musicians, from Louisiana State University Eunice.
- Creole Songs Cable Sang, George Washington Cable's article in The Century Magazine, February 1886.
- Zydeco in The Handbook of Texas.
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